Explain Skinner's operant conditioning and identify the four consequences.

• A. Behavior is shaped by its consequences; reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behaviour, while punishment decreases it; positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment.
• B. Behavior is determined by cognitive processes and expectations.
• C. Behavior is driven by unconscious drives and needs.
• D. Behavior is influenced by genetic predispositions alone.

Answer: (A)

Operant conditioning is about how voluntary behaviors are shaped by the consequences that follow them. Skinner showed that learning happens when what happens after a behavior changes how likely that behavior is to occur again. The key idea is that consequences can either strengthen or weaken behavior.

There are four specific consequences to know. Positive reinforcement adds a pleasant stimulus after the behavior, which makes the behavior more likely to happen again. Negative reinforcement removes an unpleasant stimulus after the behavior, and this also increases the likelihood of the behavior being repeated. Positive punishment adds an unpleasant stimulus after the behavior, which reduces the chance of the behavior occurring again. Negative punishment takes away a pleasant stimulus after the behavior, which also reduces its future occurrence. These four outcomes explain how behavior can be increased or decreased based on what follows it.

This framework contrasts with theories that emphasize internal thoughts, unconscious drives, or genetics, focusing instead on observable consequences to explain learning.